Book of Malachi
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The Book of Malachi (Hebrew: מַלְאָכִי, Malʾāḵī) is the last book of the Nevi'im contained in the Tanakh, and canonically the last of the Twelve Minor Prophets. In most Christian orderings, the grouping of the prophetic books forms the last section of the Old Testament, making Malachi the final book before the New Testament. The book has four chapters.
The author may or may not have been identified by the title "Malachi." The title has often been understood as a proper name, although its Hebrew meaning is simply “My Messenger” (the Septuagint reads “his messenger”), and it would not have been used as a proper name at the time of its writing. "Malachi" is often assumed to be a pseudonym used by the real writer to avoid retribution for his prophecies. Jewish tradition holds that the book was written by Ezra the scribe.
Most scholars regard the book as the result of multiple stages of redaction. Most of its text originated in the Persian period, with the oldest stratum dating to around 500 BCE and later redactions continuing into the Hellenistic period.
Oldest Surviving Manuscripts
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The entire Book of Malachi in Latin appears as part of the Codex Gigas, created around the 13th century.
The original manuscript of this book is lost, as are many centuries' worth of early copies. The oldest surviving manuscripts containing some or all of the book in Hebrew are part of the Masoretic Text tradition. These include the Codex Cairensis (895), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), the Aleppo Codex (10th century), and the Codex Leningradensis (1008). Fragments containing parts of the book were also discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls, specifically in 4Q76 (150–125 BCE) and 4Q78 (75–50 BCE).
There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, created in the last few centuries BCE. Surviving ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include the Codex Vaticanus (4th century), Codex Sinaiticus (4th century), Codex Alexandrinus (5th century), and Codex Marchalianus (6th century).
Authorship and Identity
[edit]Little is known about the biography of the author of the Book of Malachi, although it has been suggested that he may have been of Levitical descent. Due to the similarities between Malachi’s teachings and Ezra’s emphasis on forbidding marriage to foreign pagan women, the Talmud and certain Targums—such as Targum Jonathan—identify Ezra as the author of Malachi. This is the traditional view held by most Jews and some Christians. The Catholic priest and historian Jerome suggested that this connection may be because Ezra is seen as a link between the prophets and the formation of the “Great Synagogue.” According to Josephus, Ezra died and was buried “in a magnificent manner in Jerusalem.” If the tradition that Ezra wrote under the name Malachi is accurate, then he was likely buried in the Tomb of the Prophets, the traditional resting place of Malachi, Haggai, and Zechariah.
The name Malachi appears in the superscriptions at Malachi 1:1 and 3:1, although most scholars consider it unlikely that the word refers to the same figure in both instances. According to the editors of the 1897 Easton's Bible Dictionary, some scholars believe "Malachi" is not a proper name but rather an abbreviation of “Messenger of Yah.” This interpretation may be influenced by Malachi 3:1, which reads: “Behold, I will send my messenger…”—if taken literally, “my messenger” could be seen as the name Malachi.
Thus, there is considerable debate regarding the true identity of the book’s author, and many scholars assume that Malachi is a pseudonym or pen name. However, others disagree. Editors of the Catholic Encyclopedia, for example, argue that grammatical evidence supports Malachi as a genuine name, suggesting it is an abbreviated form of Mál'akhîyah, meaning “Messenger of Elohim.”
Some scholars consider the authorship of Zechariah 9–14 and Malachi to be anonymous, which may explain their placement at the end of the Twelve Minor Prophets. Biblical scholars such as Julius Wellhausen, Abraham Kuenen, and Wilhelm Gustav Hermann Nowack have argued that Malachi 1:1 is a later editorial addition, drawing parallels with Zechariah 9:1 and 12:1 as evidence. Another interpretation comes from the Septuagint superscription ἐν χειρὶ ἀγγέλου αὐτοῦ, which can be translated as either “by the hand of his messenger” or “by the hand of his angel.” The “angel” interpretation resonated with early Church Fathers and ecclesiastical writers, even giving rise to various mystical or speculative interpretations, especially among the followers of Origen.
Historical Context and Dating
[edit]There are very few historical details provided in the Book of Malachi. One of the most significant clues to its dating is the use of the Persian-era term for governor (Imperial Aramaic: פח, romanized: peḥ) found in Malachi 1:8. This indicates a post-exilic date of composition (after 538 BCE), as this Persian term would only have been relevant after the Babylonian exile—during which Judah no longer had a king, but was governed under Persian administration.
Additionally, the same verse implies that the temple had already been rebuilt, which places the book’s composition after 515 BCE, the year the Second Temple was completed.
Malachi was apparently known to the author of the Book of Sirach in the early second century BCE. Due to the thematic development within Malachi—especially its continuity with earlier prophetic literature—most scholars position it after the Book of Haggai and the Book of Zechariah, and around the time when Ezra and Nehemiah arrived in Jerusalem, roughly 445 BCE.
Purpose and Theme of the Book of Malachi
[edit]The Book of Malachi was written to address and correct what the author saw as the lax religious and social behavior of the Israelites, particularly the priests, in post-exilic Jerusalem. Although earlier prophets had urged the people of Judah and Israel to understand their exile as a punishment for breaking their covenant with God, their renewed commitment soon began to fade after their return to the land, the rebuilding of the Second Temple, and the restoration of proper worship. It was in this context that the prophet—commonly referred to as Malachi—delivered his message.
In Malachi 1:2, the people of Israel are shown questioning God’s love for them. This striking introduction highlights the severity of the spiritual decline that Malachi confronts. His message is delivered in a dialectical style, engaging his audience with rhetorical questions and challenges. Malachi accuses the people, especially the priests, of failing to show proper reverence toward God. One manifestation of this disrespect is the offering of substandard sacrifices. While God had commanded that sacrifices be made with animals “without blemish” (Leviticus 1:3, NRSV), the priests—who were responsible for judging the acceptability of the offerings—were presenting blind, lame, and sick animals, assuming no one would notice or object.
In Malachi 2:1, Yahweh Sabaoth declares a curse upon the priests for failing to honor Him with appropriate sacrifices:
“Now, watch how I am going to paralyze your arm and throw dung in your face—the dung from your very solemnities—and sweep you away with it. Then you shall learn that it is I who have given you this warning of my intention to abolish my covenant with Levi,” says Yahweh Sabaoth.
In Malachi 2:10–11, the prophet addresses the issue of divorce, treating it both as a social and religious concern. He asks, “Why then are we faithless to one another?” and condemns Judah for having “married the daughter of a foreign god.” Unlike the Book of Ezra, which demands the dismissal of foreign wives, Malachi urges men to remain faithful to the wife of their youth.
Malachi also rebukes the people for doubting God’s justice. He reminds them that God is just and calls on them to remain faithful while awaiting divine justice. However, he quickly points out that the people have not been faithful. Just as the priests were offering unacceptable sacrifices, the people were also withholding their full tithes, failing to give God what He rightfully deserves.
Interpretations
[edit]The Book of Malachi is divided into three chapters in both the Hebrew Bible and the Septuagint, but into four chapters in the Latin Vulgate. In the Vulgate, the fourth chapter is not a separate section with new content but consists of the remainder of chapter 3, beginning at verse 3:19. This difference in chapter division reflects variations in how the text was structured across different manuscript traditions and translations.
Christianity
[edit]The New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) of the Bible provides the following section headings for the Book of Malachi:
| Verse Reference | Heading |
|---|---|
| 1:1 | (Superscription) |
| 1:2–2:9 | Israel Preferred to Edom |
| 2:10–17 | The Covenant Profaned by Judah |
| 3:1–7 | The Coming Messenger |
| 3:8–18 | Do Not Rob God |
| 4:1–5 (3:19–24 in Hebrew) | The Great Day of the Lord |
Most scholars consider the book to consist of six distinct oracles. According to this structure, the Book of Malachi is framed as a series of disputes between Yahweh and various segments of the Israelite community. Throughout the book’s three (or four) chapters, Yahweh is vindicated, while those who violate the Mosaic Law are condemned. Some scholars have also proposed that the book is arranged in the form of a judicial trial, a suzerain treaty, or a covenant—central literary and theological motifs throughout the Hebrew Bible. Implicit in the prophet’s message is a call to remain faithful to Yahweh’s statutes.
Malachi draws upon several themes found throughout other parts of the Hebrew Bible. For instance, the rivalry between Jacob and Esau, and Yahweh’s preference for Jacob from Genesis 25–28, are recalled to emphasize Israel’s chosen status. In a second oracle, Malachi refers to the Levitical Code (e.g., Leviticus 1:3) to criticize the priests for offering unacceptable sacrifices.
In the third dispute—regarding divorce—Malachi may be condemning either the abandonment of Jewish wives in favor of foreign ones, or, conversely, the divorce of foreign wives in favor of Jewish ones, the latter being encouraged by Ezra. Regardless, Malachi emphasizes that nationality is not a valid reason to dissolve a marriage, affirming, “For I hate divorce, says the Lord” (2:16).
Throughout the Hebrew Bible, Israel is often depicted metaphorically as Yahweh’s bride (especially in Hosea). Malachi’s stance on divorce may also reinforce this metaphor, warning against spiritual unfaithfulness. This concern reflects a broader trend of disillusionment among the people, who questioned God’s justice and love (1:2, 2:17). According to theologian William Sanford LaSor, the post-exilic community may have grown disenchanted when the restoration of Judah failed to meet the Messianic expectations.
A striking image from the fourth dispute is the announcement of a coming messenger, who will be “like a refiner’s fire and like fullers’ soap” (3:2).
In the fifth dispute, Malachi criticizes the people for withholding tithes, urging them to “Bring the full tithe... and see if I will not open the windows of heaven for you and pour down... a blessing” (3:10). This reflects the conditional nature of divine blessing and echoes the covenantal theme that obedience leads to God’s favor.
The sixth and final dispute expresses the people’s growing cynicism: “It is vain to serve God... Now we count the arrogant happy; evildoers not only prosper, but when they put God to the test they escape” (3:14–15). Malachi reaffirms that justice will prevail, and the faithful will be rewarded.
In anticipation of judgment, Malachi exhorts his audience to “Remember the teaching of my servant Moses, the statutes and ordinances I commanded him at Horeb for all Israel” (4:4 / 3:22 MT). Before the Day of the Lord, Elijah—who “ascended in a whirlwind into heaven” (2 Kings 2:11)—will return to prepare the people for God’s ways.
The Book of Malachi is often cited in the New Testament, particularly for its messianic themes. Several passages are directly referenced in the Gospels and other New Testament writings, drawing a theological link between Malachi’s prophecies and the coming of Jesus Christ.
| Malachi | New Testament |
|---|---|
| "Yet I have loved Jacob but I have hated Esau" (1:2–3) | "'I have loved Jacob, but I have hated Esau.'" (Romans 9:13) |
| "And if I am a master, where is the respect due me?" (1:6) | "Why do you call me "Lord, Lord,' and do not do what I tell you?" (Luke 6:46) |
| "the table of YHWH" (1:7,12) | "the table of the Lord" (1 Corinthians 10:21) |
| "For from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the nations," (1:11) | "so that the name of our Lord Jesus may be glorified in you" (2 Thessalonians 1:12) |
| "Lord, who will not fear and glorify your name?" (Revelation 15:4) | |
| "For the lips of a priest should guard knowledge, and people should seek instruction from his mouth, for he is the messenger of the Lord of hosts. But you have turned aside from the way; you have caused many to stumble by your instruction; you have corrupted the covenant of Levi, says the Lord of hosts," (2:7–8) | "therefore, do whatever they teach you and follow it; but do not do as they do, for they do not practice what they teach" (Matthew 23:3) |
| "Have we not all one father?" (2:10) | "yet for us there is one God, the Father" (1 Corinthians 8:6) |
| "See, I am sending my messenger to prepare the way before me" (3:1) | "See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way" (Mark 1:2) |
| "See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way before you" (Matthew 11:10†, Luke 7:27) | |
| "But who can endure the day of his coming, and who can stand when he appears?" (3:2) | "for the great day of their wrath has come, and who is able to stand?" (Revelation 6:17) |
| "and he will purify the descendants of Levi and refine them like gold and silver" (3:3) | "so that the genuineness of your faith . . . being more precious than gold that, though perishable, is tested by fire . . ." (1 Peter 1:7) |
| "against those who oppress the hired workers in their wages" (3:5) | "Listen! The wages of the laborers who mowed your fields, which you kept back by fraud" (James 5:4) |
| "For I, Jehovah, change not;" (3:6) | "Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever." (Hebrews 13:8) |
| "Return to me, and I will return to you," (3:7) | "Draw near to God, and he will draw near to you" (James 4:8) |
| "But for you who revere my name the sun of righteousness shall rise," (4:2) | "By the tender mercy of our God, the dawn from on high will break upon us," (Luke 1:78) |
| "Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and terrible day of Jehovah come." (4:5) | "he is Elijah who is to come." (Matthew 11:14) |
| "Elijah has already come," (Matthew 17:12) | |
| "Elijah has come," (Mark 9:13) | |
| "Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and terrible day of Jehovah come. And he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers; lest I come and smite the earth with a curse." (4:5–6) | "With the spirit and power of Elijah he will go before him, to turn the hearts of parents to their children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the righteous," (Luke 1:17) |
Although many Christians believe that the messianic prophecies in the Book of Malachi were fulfilled in the life of Jesus, religious Jews—who do not share this belief—continue to await the coming of the prophet Elijah, who will prepare the way for the Messiah.
References
[edit]Bibliography
[edit]- Hill, Andrew E. Malachi: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. The Anchor Bible, Volume 25D. Toronto: Doubleday, 1998.
- LaSor, William Sanford, et al. Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
- Mason, Rex. The Books of Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi. The Cambridge Bible Commentary on the New English Bible. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
- Singer, Isidore, and Adolf Guttmacher. “Book of Malachi.” JewishEncyclopedia.com, 2002.
- Van Hoonacker, A. “Malachias (Malachi).” Catholic Encyclopedia. Transcribed by Thomas J. Bress, 2003.
External links
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